Spain, the Early Years:
Costume of the Visigoths, Mozarabes, and the Northern Christian Kingdoms

Maddalena Jessamyn di Piemonte

Originally printed in Seams Like Old Times, Issue #18

Early Spanish costume has not been widely explored; the casual browser will find little mention of this period in general sources on costume, and little iconographic evidence in general, or even somewhat specific art sources. What few reference works we have are in Spanish, and to find pictorial representations often requires a major library. The search, however, is worth the trouble, for what emerges is a body of unique garments, largely unknown and usually quite foreign to the traditions of the rest of Western Europe.

Before discussing the costume of any period, it is important to understand the historical factors that shaped it. The Iberian peninsula, after a period of Roman domination, was invaded by a number of barbarian tribes, including the Suevi, the Vandals, the Alani, and finally was controlled by the Visigoths about 415 A.D.. While the Visigoths brought many elements of Germanic culture to the peninsula, they retained many Roman customs, especially in the area of dress. After a period of regicide and civil war during the 6^th century, and palace intrigues and disputes during the 7^th century, the Visigoths were unprepared in 711 for the invasion of the Berbers and Arabs. The conquering forces swept northward, but were stopped by Charles Martel north of the Pyrenees, eventually settling into domination of all of the peninsula except for a few northern Christian kingdoms. Until 1492 these northern kingdoms engaged in a constant struggle for the reconquest of Spain.

While the last Visigothic king lost his throne in 711, evidence about costume for the next 200 years shows the continuation of the Visigothic styles. This period, therefore, while not technically Visigothic, will be referred to as such for the sake of convenience. There are very few sources, iconographic or otherwise to document costume of this period; we are, therefore, indebted to St. Isidore of Seville, who, in his encyclopedia Etimologias (A.D. 622-623) devotes most of a chapter to a discussion of dress. (We are also indebted to Carmen Bernis who is, to my knowledge, the only modern author to investigate this period; much of the following discussion is drawn from her research on the seventh through tenth centuries.)

Seventh through Tenth Centuries

The basic garment of the Visigoths, like the Romans, was the túnica (tunic) with sleeves (shown in Figures 1 and 2). There are several types described: the túnica pectoralis (a short tunic), the túnica escarlate and the túnica coccina (red tunics), and the armilausa vulgo. The armilausa was foreign to the Roman tradition, as it was open in front and behind (Figure 3); some of these had an open skirt with sharp points and are seen in Visigothic reliefs in Asturias. There is also mention of a woman's tunic called and amiculum, which was worn by women of questionable repute in Rome, but was worn in Spain by honest women. Still in evidence in the Roman tunic, decorated with vertical strips called clavii. Tunics were frequently decorated with bold stripes, both horizontal and vertical, and were belted with a thick buckled belt known as a cingulum, many of which have been found in burial excavations. There is also an unusual style seen in the codex Armilianensis, a Visigothic manuscript. Here we see, on both men and women, what appears to be a long tunic or gown with tiers of flounces. Boucher speculates that these were introduced into Spain by merchants from Syria, where this type of Cretan-inspired skirt was worn. (See Boucher p. 132, Davenport p. 109)

Capas and mantos, or mantles, were worn by both sexes and all classes. The Roman cape, in various shapes, was worn gathered over the left shoulder, and the chlamys, a short, semi-circular cloak was worn knotted over the shoulder. San Isidoro takes special note of the mantum hispani (Figures 5 and 13); this was a small cape that just reached the hands, and it became common in Spanish fashion during the following centuries. There is also evidence that the Roman pallium, a rectangular cloak, was worn. In Spain, however, this manto was held not with a single fibula (pin) on the shoulder, but fibulæ were placed on both sides of the chest.

Men (and possibly women) wore various kinds of leg coverings, similar to modern-day pants. Bracae were brief, and only covered the intimate parts, while femoralia were longer and also covered the thighs. Tubrucos, a name that today designates pants, were worn either tight or loose around the ankles. These are shown in Roman reliefs as barbaric dress, and Bernis notes that they bear a strong resemblance to pants worn in Persia while giving birth.

Turning our attention from the bottom to the top, it is seen that the short hair worn in the classical Roman period was giving way to longer styles, and these new styles favored bangs to the ears. It was the custom for young women to wear their hair loose, signifying an unmarried state. San Isidoro also mentions a capitulare in relation to women's headwear, but we can only surmise what this could be.

Eleventh Century

Mozarabic Spain, that under Muslim domination, developed styles of dress distinct from those of the rest of Christian Europe. Unlike the previous period, there is more evidence in miniatures as to styles for this period of Spanish history.

Bernis first mentions the camisa, but does not explain the nature of this garment, except for the mention of camisas lineas (linen) and camisas siricas (silk) and the fact that these were white and other colors. There is, however, more information on túnicas. In Spain, unlike the rest of Europe, these were seen in great variety and many had names of Arabic origin. The mutebag was tight and sleeveless (Figure 6), while the mofarage or mofarrex was split and open from the waist, leaving the legs bare. The upper class wore túnicas in different lengths which were worn over each other (Figure 7), and outer tunics were called pintelles, or aljubas, a term that is used in succeeding centuries to designate the outermost garment. There is also reference to the adorra, which was buttoned down the front, probably the earliest reference to buttons. There are also seen túnicas that are open in front to an inverted point, those that are lengthened in back to the ankles (sometimes in points) and those with a rectangular train in the back (Figure 4). Túnicas were made of wool and linen and, in the Kingdom of Leones, they were seen in expensive colored silk. (Muslim Spain at this time was in competition with the Orient in the manufacturing of silk fabrics.) Garments were decorated with strips (possibly of embroidery) on the cuffs, sleeves, and shoulders, and a single garment could be made of several different colors of cloth. Fabric was decorated with small overall patterns, especially groups of three dots, and also with larger patterned stripes.

Mantles also developed a great variety and were mobatana (fur-lined), barragán (wool), and alifafe (made of different furs). Common furs were weasel, rabbit, and lamb. A peculiarly Spanish style, probably originating from the Roman paenula, was completely closed, was shorter in the back than in the front, and had a band decorating the lower front edge. Another traditionally Spanish style, worn by both men and women, is one that had an opening for the left arm (Figures 1 and 2). Also still seen is the short Visigothic cape.

Masculine Spanish fashion is distinguished by garments for the legs, especially loose-fitting pants gathered at the ankles, seen in pictures of knights and other important figures; a shorter version of these are worn by the lower class (Figure 8). These pants could possibly be descendants of the Visigothic femaralis, or might show Muslim influences. Most names for footwear do show this influence, such as ballugas, which rose up around the ankles, and soccos, albacass, and zapatones. (Zapatas came to be the generic name for footwear through the Renaissance.) There are also mentioned sandalia, obviously from the Romans, and we see shoes with curled pointed toes, showing Arabic influence.

Various types of headwear (Figure 9) are shown in miniatures, from the tall, pointed mitres of the bishops to the semi-circular, crested silhouetted of the king. There is also seen the tall, round headwear of the upper class and the pointed helmet (?) of the soldier. Turbans are also evidenced, and this could explain what looks like a disc around the heads of some figures. Also described is a hood that covers the head and neck, held to either with a large band called an almaizar.

Twelfth Century

In the 12^th century, pilgrimages increased throughout Europe and there was an increase in the exchange of knowledge. As San Juan de Compostela became a main pilgrim site, the Christian kingdoms of northern Spain began to be influenced more and more by the customs of the rest of Europe. While dress also fell under this influence, Spanish costume still retained unique Mozarabic traditions and there is still abundant evidence of Eastern influence.

The main garments for men and women were the brial, worn under the piel/pellizón, and a cloak. (The words almexia and túnica continued to be used.) The brial was a tunic, usually with tight sleeves; women wore the long brial, but men favored a somewhat shorter version which could also be split to facilitate riding. The brial was usually made of rich fabric such as cenda (thin silk), xamet, or ciclatón (silk made with gold). Cuffs were usually decorated with geometric or spiral patterns, but we are not sure how these were applied, and small, over-all fabric designs are still evident.

The piel or pellizón was worn over the brial and, like the brial, could have a split skirt. Sleeves, however, were shorter and wider (even knotted) and feminine versions show tight sleeves that widen abruptly at the wrist (Figures 10 and 11). The name pellizón comes from the fur lining that was hidden by another fabric lining; favorite furs were ermine, abortones, rabbit, and lamb. These garments were decorated with bands around the low neckline, the edges of the sleeves, the hems of the skirts, and across the upper sleeves (also a Muslim style).

Bernis says that cloaks were worn indoors and out and that the old Roman pallium and semi-circular cloaks continued to be used. Also very popular at this time was a cape with only an opening for the head, topped by a hood; women preferred a shorter version of the cloak, similar to a modern-day poncho. Tubrucos (pants) continued to be worn but were being relegated to the lower classes. A new king of leg/footwear became favored that was fitted to the leg and probably fastened to bracæ (Figure 12).

During this period men rarely covered their hair, which could be long or short, and worn in braids. Underneath the cappillo de armor (helm), however, a coffia gathered the hair, and the cappillo of iron, which was conical, gave its name to a pointed cloth headpiece. Beards were common and symbolic; an unkempt beard, or one braided with a cloth cord was a sign of mourning, while holding one's beard in the hand showed great satisfaction or arrogance. A supreme insult was to stroke another man's beard; El Cid swore an oath por aquesta barba que nadi non messó, meaning "by this beard that no man touches." Women, on the other hand, always wore a head covering of some kind. One style, showing Byzantine influence, covered the head, neck, shoulders, and sometimes the chest, while another style shows layers of crimped cloth wound around the face and neck. To both of these styles could be added a hat.

While there are few sources for documentation about costuming during this period, what we see is a variety of unusual styles not evidenced in other parts of Europe. This variety continues to be a characteristic of Spanish fashion through the Renaissance, and I highly recommend further study in this field to those who are inclined to explore uncharted waters.

Bibliography

Bernis (Madroza), Carmen. (1955). Indumentaria Medieval Española. Madrid: Institute Diego Velasquez.

Boucher, Francois. (1987). 20,000 Years of Fashion (expanded edition). New York: Harry M. Abrams, Inc.

Davenport, Millia. (1976). The Book of Costume. New York: Crown Publishers.

Post, Chandler R. (1966). A History of Spanish Painting (Vol. 1-10). Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.